Development of Catholic Doctrine Book Summary

Title: Development of Catholic Doctrine: Evolution, Revolution, or an Organic Process?
Author: Dave Armstrong

TLDR: This book explores the Catholic concept of doctrinal development, arguing that doctrines deepen in understanding over time without changing their essence. Armstrong refutes Protestant criticisms, citing Scripture, Church history, and Cardinal Newman’s theory of development.

Chapter 1: An Overview of Development of Doctrine: Is it a Corruption of Biblical Teaching?

This chapter introduces the Catholic understanding of doctrinal development as an unfolding of deeper understanding and clarity within divinely revealed truths. It emphasizes that while comprehension may grow, the essential core of each doctrine remains unchanged, highlighting the Church’s role as the guardian of this apostolic deposit.

Armstrong argues that the concept of development finds its roots in Scripture, drawing parallels to the growth of seeds and bodies, metaphors used to describe the Church in the Bible. He cites passages like Matthew 5:17, 13:31-32, and John 14:26, 16:13 as evidence for the ongoing guidance of the Holy Spirit in illuminating Christian truth.

The chapter uses the example of the canon of Scripture itself as a prime illustration of development. It took centuries for the Church to reach a consensus on the final list of books in the New Testament, demonstrating that the Bible does not provide an instant or self-evident answer to this fundamental question. This exemplifies the role of Tradition, Church authority, and development in shaping Christian understanding.

Armstrong refutes the Protestant notion of a static Church, frozen in time after the apostolic era. He points to the development of doctrines like the divinity of Christ, the Trinity, and the two natures of Christ, all finalized centuries after Christ, as evidence for the ongoing need for theological reflection and clarification. He highlights the role of heresies in challenging and prompting the Church to articulate doctrine more precisely.

The chapter draws a crucial distinction between development and evolution, arguing that Protestantism introduced a radical departure from historical Christianity by emphasizing subjective private judgment and sola Scriptura. This approach, according to Armstrong, is a “corruption” insofar as it deviates from apostolic precedent and the traditional understanding of Christian authority.

Armstrong acknowledges the need for reform within Catholicism, but stresses that these reforms should be within the framework of the apostolic deposit and not a revolutionary break from tradition. He emphasizes the ongoing reformative nature of the Church, exemplified in figures like St. Bernard, St. Ignatius Loyola, and St. Thomas More, and in events like the Council of Trent and Vatican II.

Chapter 2: Vatican II and the Catechism of the Catholic Church on Development of Doctrine

This chapter solidifies the position of doctrinal development as official Catholic teaching by presenting excerpts from authoritative documents like Vatican II’s Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation (Dei Verbum) and the Catechism of the Catholic Church. These texts explicitly recognize the ongoing growth of understanding within the Church, guided by the Holy Spirit and the Magisterium.

Key passages from Dei Verbum highlight the role of the Apostles in handing on the deposit of faith, the continuation of this apostolic tradition through episcopal succession, and the active role of the Holy Spirit in facilitating a deeper understanding of revealed truth within the Church. The document stresses that the Church “constantly moves forward toward the fullness of divine truth.”

The Catechism echoes these themes, emphasizing the ongoing role of the Church in understanding and transmitting revelation. It recognizes the sensus fidei, the “supernatural appreciation of faith” by the faithful, as an essential component of this process. It also acknowledges the contributions of theological research, personal spiritual experience, and the teaching authority of the Magisterium in deepening the understanding of revealed truth.

The chapter provides specific examples of doctrinal development mentioned in the Catechism, including the clarification of Trinitarian faith in the early centuries, the evolution of moral conscience regarding marriage, and the development of social doctrine in response to the industrial revolution. These diverse examples illustrate the dynamic nature of Catholic doctrine in addressing new challenges and deepening its grasp of God’s revelation.

Chapter 3: Fundamental Misunderstandings of Some Fundamentalists Concerning Development

This chapter tackles Protestant criticisms of doctrinal development, particularly those centered on the papacy. Armstrong refutes the common misconception that the Catholic Church claims the papacy in its fully developed form was present in the first century. He clarifies that the essential core of the papacy, Petrine primacy and universal jurisdiction, were indeed present from the beginning, acting as the “seed” that developed over time.

Armstrong addresses the accusation that Vatican I renounced the concept of development regarding the papacy. He demonstrates that the Council actually embraced development by citing St. Vincent of Lerins, whose writings on development are considered a classic exposition of this concept. The Council, by citing St. Vincent, implicitly acknowledges the organic growth of doctrine, including the papacy.

The chapter further exposes the flawed logic of equating development with evolution. Armstrong draws on the teachings of Pope St. Pius X, who explicitly distinguished between development and evolution, and affirmed the orthodox nature of development while condemning modernism. He also cites Protestant Church historian Philip Schaff, who recognized the gradual unfolding of doctrine within the Church.

Armstrong analyzes the enduring influence of Anglican George Salmon’s anti-Catholic work, “The Infallibility of the Church,” which falsely claims that development implies essential change and contradicts the Church’s claim to unwavering dogma. Armstrong dismantles this straw-man argument by pointing to the writings of St. Vincent of Lerins, demonstrating that unchanging essence and organic development are not mutually exclusive.

The chapter concludes by emphasizing that the papacy, like all doctrines, developed in response to historical circumstances and theological challenges, while its core essence remained unchanged. Armstrong compares this to the development of Christology, Trinitarianism, and even the canon of Scripture, which all underwent significant clarification and definition while retaining their essential core.

Chapter 4: How Cardinal Newman Convinced me of the Apostolicity of the Catholic Church

This chapter provides a personal account of Armstrong’s conversion to Catholicism, highlighting the crucial role of Cardinal Newman’s “Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine” in shaping his understanding of Church history. Armstrong describes his initial Protestant view of the early Church as quasi-Protestant and the Catholic Church as a later “corruption.” He details his research project aimed at refuting the Catholic claims of infallibility and doctrinal consistency.

During his investigation, Armstrong encountered various anti-Catholic arguments, particularly those found in the works of George Salmon, Johann von Dollinger, and Hans Kung. He enthusiastically adopted these viewpoints, seeking to demonstrate the historical inconsistencies of the Catholic Church. However, his encounter with Newman’s “Essay” proved to be a turning point.

Armstrong describes his growing respect for Newman as a brilliant Church historian and his increasing openness to Catholicism after reading works by Catholic authors like Christopher Dawson, Joan Andrews, Thomas Merton, and Karl Adam. He approached Newman’s “Essay” with anticipation, recognizing it as a formidable defense of Catholic doctrines and their historical development.

Newman’s central argument, that Protestantism represented a significant departure from historical Christianity, challenged Armstrong’s core beliefs. Newman presented compelling evidence for the presence of numerous “Catholic distinctives” in the early Church, such as episcopacy, the Real Presence, baptismal regeneration, purgatory, priesthood, apostolic succession, penance, prayers for the dead, and Marian doctrines.

Newman’s “Seven Notes” of true development, particularly the principle that true development preserves the original type and principles of a belief system, convinced Armstrong that Protestantism introduced radical new doctrines like sola fide, sola Scriptura, and an invisible Church. These innovations, he realized, were not merely reforms but constituted a break from the historical Christian tradition.

The chapter recounts Armstrong’s evolving understanding of the papacy as a consistent development of Petrine primacy, exemplified by historical precedents and patristic consensus. He acknowledges the overwhelming evidence for the historical continuity of the Catholic Church and its claim to apostolic preeminence, leading to his eventual conversion.

Chapter 5: Various Aspects of Newman’s Theory of Development and His Rhetorical and Literary Style

This chapter delves deeper into Newman’s theory of development, clarifying its key elements and addressing common misconceptions. It reiterates the fundamental distinction between development and evolution, emphasizing that development is an unfolding of deeper understanding within a doctrine while its essential core remains unchanged.

Armstrong emphasizes the analogical nature of Newman’s reasoning, drawing on the influence of Bishop Joseph Butler’s “Analogy of Religion.” Newman’s method relies heavily on drawing parallels between natural phenomena and the development of doctrines, demonstrating that growth and change are not inherently antithetical to essential identity.

The chapter highlights Newman’s “Seven Notes” as key indicators of genuine development, including preservation of type, continuity of principles, power of assimilation, early anticipation, logical sequence, preservative additions, and chronic continuance. Armstrong clarifies that these notes are not rigid rules but rather discernments of historical tendencies and patterns observed within the Church.

Armstrong addresses criticisms of Newman’s allegedly over-generalized critiques of his theological opponents. He argues that Newman was often responding to the specific context of 19th century English anti-Catholicism, which was often based on prejudice and misinformation. He explains that Newman’s critiques were directed at this broader anti-Catholic mentality, while acknowledging that Newman, like anyone, could sometimes be prone to exaggeration or unfairness in the heat of debate.

The chapter concludes by examining the challenges presented by Newman’s complex writing style. His long sentences, intricate arguments, and heavy reliance on analogy can make his works difficult to comprehend. Armstrong suggests that this complexity reflects both Newman’s profound intellect and his sensitive personality. He argues that Newman’s perceived arrogance or defensiveness was likely a result of his hypersensitivity to criticism and misunderstanding.

Chapter 6: The Development of Catholic Mariology

This chapter focuses on the development of Catholic doctrines regarding the Blessed Virgin Mary, particularly the Immaculate Conception. Armstrong challenges critics who dismiss these doctrines as excessive or corruptions, demanding specific criteria for distinguishing between legitimate development and illegitimate innovation.

He argues that the Immaculate Conception, which asserts Mary’s freedom from original sin from the moment of her conception, finds its roots in the early patristic concept of Mary as the New Eve. Just as Eve was immaculate before the Fall, Mary, the Second Eve, was preserved from sin by God’s grace. He notes that this concept was further developed over centuries, with figures like Duns Scotus contributing to its articulation.

Armstrong utilizes the biblical description of Mary as “full of grace” (kecharitomene in Greek) in Luke 1:28 as a strong Scriptural foundation for the Immaculate Conception. He presents extensive biblical evidence, relying on Protestant commentaries and lexicons, to demonstrate that grace in Scripture is consistently presented as the antithesis of sin. Therefore, to be full of grace implies both salvation and exceptional holiness, leading to the deduction that Mary was indeed sinless.

The chapter draws parallels between the development of the Immaculate Conception and other doctrines widely accepted by Christians, such as Transubstantiation (which developed from the earlier concept of the Real Presence) and the Trinity. Armstrong emphasizes that the complexity of a doctrine’s articulation does not negate its presence in its essential form from the beginning.

He addresses objections based on the supposed “lateness” of the Immaculate Conception’s dogmatic definition, comparing it to the relatively late emergence of the New Testament canon. Just as the Bible itself does not explicitly define its own contents, relying instead on Church authority and Tradition, so too did Marian doctrines develop over time, guided by the Holy Spirit and the Church’s deepening understanding of revelation.

Armstrong concludes by emphasizing that the Marian doctrines, though less explicitly stated in Scripture, are nevertheless rooted in biblical principles and are not simply arbitrary additions. He argues that Protestant rejections of these doctrines are often driven by anti-Catholic bias rather than a genuine engagement with Scripture and Tradition.

Chapter 7: The Development of the Papacy and the Canon of Scripture

This chapter continues the exploration of doctrinal development by examining the papacy and the canon of Scripture. Armstrong reiterates the Catholic position that all doctrines are present in Scripture, either explicitly or implicitly, and that the Bible must be interpreted authoritatively by the Church.

He critiques the common Protestant argument that “true developments” are exclusively those that are explicitly biblical, while “Catholic distinctives” are merely human traditions. This approach, he argues, is circular and inconsistently applied, as Protestants also accept doctrines like the canon of Scripture and the Trinity, which are not explicitly stated in the Bible and underwent significant development over time.

Armstrong presents a robust biblical defense of the papacy, drawing on passages like Matthew 16:18-19, which describe Peter as the “Rock” upon whom Christ built His Church, and the one given the “keys of the kingdom of heaven.” He cites numerous Protestant commentaries and scholars who acknowledge that Peter himself is the Rock and that the keys symbolize administrative authority within the Church.

He further strengthens his argument by drawing on Old Testament precedents, particularly the office of the steward, which represented a divinely appointed authority delegated by the king. Armstrong highlights the parallels between Peter’s role as the steward of Christ’s Church and figures like Eliakim in Isaiah 22 and Joseph in Genesis, who held positions of supreme authority under the king.

Armstrong addresses the objection that the “papal” interpretation of Matthew 16 was not widely held in the early Church. He counters this claim by presenting a long list of Church Fathers and Councils that affirmed Peter as the Rock, demonstrating a strong patristic consensus on this point. He emphasizes that the papacy, like many other doctrines, developed in its expression and understanding while its essential core remained constant.

The chapter concludes by addressing the development of the canon of Scripture. Armstrong highlights the irony of Protestants appealing to sola Scriptura while simultaneously accepting a canon that was not explicitly defined in Scripture and took centuries to reach its final form. He argues that the very existence of the New Testament canon depends on the authority of the Catholic Church, further undermining the Protestant claim of “Scripture Alone.”

Chapter 8: Historical Development in the Understanding of Doctrinal Development of the Apostolic Deposit

This chapter provides a historical overview of the concept of doctrinal development, showcasing its presence in the writings of Church Fathers, theologians, popes, and Catholic scholars throughout history. Armstrong demonstrates that the idea of development is not a novel invention of Cardinal Newman but rather a consistent thread within the Catholic tradition.

He presents excerpts from the writings of key figures like St. Irenaeus, Origen, St. Gregory of Nyssa, and St. Augustine, all of whom acknowledged the ongoing growth of understanding within the Church. These Fathers recognized that doctrines could be clarified and more fully explicated over time, especially in response to heretical challenges, without altering their essential core.

The chapter highlights the seminal contributions of St. Vincent of Lerins, whose “Commonitorium” is considered a classic exposition of doctrinal development. St. Vincent’s famous dictum, “hold fast to that which has been believed everywhere, always, and by all,” is often cited by Protestants against development. However, Armstrong demonstrates that St. Vincent himself explicitly affirmed the organic growth of doctrine, comparing it to the growth of a body, while stressing the importance of preserving the essential core of the faith.

The chapter explores the insights of St. Thomas Aquinas, who recognized that while the truth of faith was fully present in the teachings of Christ and the Apostles, it needed to be expressed more explicitly over time to combat heresies and clarify emerging theological questions. Aquinas acknowledged the gradual unfolding of doctrines like the Trinity and the Immaculate Conception, emphasizing the role of the Church’s Magisterium in guiding this process.

Armstrong includes excerpts from various Catholic writers and popes, including G.K. Chesterton, Pope Pius IX, Cardinal James Gibbons, Sylvester J. Hunter, Robert Hugh Benson, Pope St. Pius X, Karl Adam, Pope Pius XI, and Pope Pius XII. These diverse sources demonstrate the consistent affirmation of doctrinal development within the Catholic tradition, highlighting its essential role in defending the faith, deepening understanding, and addressing new challenges.

The chapter concludes by reaffirming that doctrinal development is not a sign of doctrinal instability or corruption but rather a manifestation of the Church’s living tradition, guided by the Holy Spirit and the Magisterium. Armstrong emphasizes that development ensures the unchanging essence of Catholic doctrine while allowing for a deeper and richer comprehension of revealed truth over time.