Science Was Born of Christianity Book Summary

Title: Science Was Born of Christianity: The Teaching of Father Stanley L. Jaki
Author: Stacy A. Trasancos

TLDR: This book explores Fr. Stanley Jaki’s argument that modern science was “born” within the unique cultural and theological matrix of Christianity. He asserts that while other cultures made significant scientific advancements, they lacked the worldview necessary for science to flourish as a self-sustaining enterprise. He attributes this to the Christian doctrines of creation “ex nihilo,” the Incarnation, and the Trinity, which provided a framework for understanding a rational, ordered universe with a definite beginning in time.

Chapter 1: “Science”

This chapter establishes the core definition of “science” as used throughout the book, a definition central to Father Jaki’s arguments. He defines “exact science” as “the quantitative study of the quantitative aspects of objects in motion.” This seemingly simple definition carries profound implications, emphasizing the quantifiable and measurable nature of scientific inquiry.

Jaki argues that this rigorous definition is vital because the term “science” has become muddled, particularly due to the rise of “Scientism.” This philosophical stance wrongly elevates science as the ultimate solution to all human problems. By adhering to a strict definition of science based on quantitative measurements, Jaki aims to protect the integrity of both science and other fields of human inquiry, like philosophy, theology, and the humanities.

The author explains that Jaki’s definition is rooted in Aristotelian philosophy, which distinguishes between quantities and qualities. Quantities, being numerical, are absolute and exact, while qualities are subjective and can be described as “more or less.” This distinction, Jaki argues, was key to the Scientific Revolution, which shifted the focus of natural philosophy from qualitative observations to the quantitative measurement of phenomena.

Jaki extends this definition beyond physics, acknowledging that other sciences are “exact” to the degree they employ quantitative measurements of objects in motion. He clarifies that chemistry, for instance, deals with averages of interactions between many objects and that evolutionary biology is exact only when focusing on quantifiable mechanisms. Fields like psychology, sociology, and political science are deemed “minimally exact” due to their limited reliance on quantifiable data.

This strict definition leads to a crucial distinction between science and religion. Science, restricted to the quantifiable realm of matter, cannot address philosophical or religious questions, which reside in a separate domain. This separation is crucial for preventing the misapplication of scientific findings to support non-scientific claims and for ensuring the independent integrity of both science and religion.

Why does this definition matter?

Jaki’s insistence on a clear definition of science is vital for several reasons. Firstly, it addresses the ongoing struggle within the scientific community to define its own scope. Vague definitions, like those offered by some dictionaries, blur the lines between science and philosophy, opening the door for Scientism to claim unwarranted authority over non-scientific domains.

Secondly, by delineating the limits of science, Jaki emphasizes the power of reasoned discourse in exploring questions of existence, purpose, and morality. Fields like philosophy and theology can stand on their own merits without needing validation from scientific findings. This protects the integrity of these disciplines and acknowledges the limitations of a purely quantitative approach to knowledge.

Lastly, by clarifying the difference between science and religion, Jaki provides a framework for avoiding conflict between the two. While both contribute to understanding the world, they operate in different domains and address fundamentally different questions. Recognizing this separation prevents the misapplication of scientific findings to support or refute religious claims, and vice versa.

Chapter 2: “Was Born”

This chapter delves into the historical argument that modern science, defined by Jaki as “exact science,” was “born” within the cultural womb of Christianity, having been “stillborn” in other ancient cultures. Jaki argues that while other cultures made significant advancements in technology, mathematics, and observation, they lacked the crucial worldview that allowed science to flourish as a self-sustaining discipline.

Jaki challenges the prevalent linear model of scientific development, proposing a more nuanced approach where science evolved like a tree with many dead branches (stillbirths) before flourishing in Christian Europe. He identifies the “stillbirth” of science in ancient Egypt, India, China, Babylon, Greece, and Arabia, exploring the successes and limitations of each culture’s scientific endeavors.

Stillbirths in Ancient Cultures:

Jaki acknowledges the impressive technological achievements of each civilization. The Egyptians constructed magnificent pyramids, developed a sophisticated writing system, and practiced advanced carpentry. The Chinese invented gunpowder, papermaking, and the compass, while the Indians developed the decimal system and displayed mastery in metallurgy. Babylonians made significant advancements in astronomy and mathematics, while the Greeks built a rigorous system of geometry and excelled in biological studies.

However, Jaki argues that a specific “breakthrough” was missing in each of these cultures, preventing them from achieving a viable, self-sustaining scientific enterprise. This missing element, he posits, was a worldview that recognized the universe as created by a rational Creator with an absolute beginning and end in time.

Jaki analyzes the religious and philosophical thought of these cultures, highlighting their shared belief in an eternal, cyclical universe. Egyptians saw the world as an organism, perpetually cycling through birth, death, and rebirth. Chinese philosophies, like Taoism and Confucianism, emphasized inner harmony and sought knowledge within the mind rather than through external observation. Hindu thought was characterized by a belief in the eternal unity of the universe (Brahman) and a cyclical view of history. Babylonians viewed the cosmos as governed by personified forces engaged in a cosmic struggle. Greeks, despite their advances in logic and mathematics, also adhered to a cyclical worldview, exemplified by Plato’s concept of the Great Year. Arabs, despite their monotheistic beliefs codified in the Koran, struggled to reconcile their faith with the Greek scientific corpus, which emphasized an eternal universe.

The Biblical Womb:

Jaki then turns to the ancient Hebrew culture, highlighting the revolutionary concept of creation “ex nihilo” found in the book of Genesis. This unique worldview, which separates the Creator from creation and posits an absolute beginning of time, laid the foundation for the scientific mindset that would later flourish in the Christian West.

The author extensively quotes from the Old Testament prophets and Psalms, showcasing a prevalent belief in an ordered and predictable universe that testifies to the faithfulness of God. The Book of Wisdom, written in Alexandria during a period of interaction with Hellenistic thought, demonstrates an attempt to reconcile Greek philosophy with the biblical creation narrative. The story of the martyred mother and her seven sons in the book of Maccabees highlights the depth of faith in a Creator who holds everything in existence and can bring it to an end, showcasing a worldview radically different from those that envisioned an eternal, cyclical universe.

Early Christianity:

This section explores the early Christian worldview and its continuity with the biblical concept of creation. Jaki analyzes the writings of early Church Fathers like St. Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, St. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and St. Augustine of Hippo, highlighting their efforts to differentiate Christian beliefs from paganism and pantheism.

These early Christian thinkers emphasized the distinction between God and creation, advocating for a worldview that acknowledged a rational Creator who created the universe out of nothing and governs it with order and lawfulness. They challenged the eternal cycles of Greek thought, arguing for a universe with an absolute beginning and end in time. St. Augustine, whose work shaped medieval thought, stressed the importance of a purposeful and rational universe, accessible to human reason through participation in God’s mind.

The Christian West:

Jaki presents a chronological survey of medieval Christian scholars, showcasing the intellectual progression that culminated in the birth of modern science. He begins with Adelard of Bath, whose work in the twelfth century marks the dawn of a new scientific spirit. Adelard emphasized the need for rational investigation of the natural world, arguing that reason should be used as far as possible before resorting to explanations based solely on divine will.

Thierry of Chartres, influenced by both Platonic and biblical thought, argued for a natural explanation of the universe, emphasizing the role of mathematics in understanding creation. Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, also sought a rational account of the universe based on a belief in a personal Creator. He explored the limits of human measurement, recognizing the need for infinitely precise units known only to God. William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris, confronted the magical and superstitious elements prevalent in thirteenth-century thought, seeking to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Christian dogma while advocating for scientific investigation of the natural world.

St. Albert the Great, a Dominican friar, played a crucial role in introducing Aristotelian thought to the West, synthesizing it with Christian theology and promoting a scientific approach to studying nature. St. Thomas Aquinas, Albert’s student, furthered this synthesis, establishing a classical balance between faith and reason. He rejected Aristotle’s doctrine of eternal cycles, arguing for a universe created by God with an absolute beginning and end in time.

Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar, is often hailed as a precursor to modern science for his emphasis on the experimental method. While accepting some superstitious elements, Bacon recognized the importance of experience as a criterion of truth and advocated for a unified approach to knowledge that integrated all branches of learning.

Siger of Brabant, a radical Aristotelian, challenged the Church by advocating for the autonomy of philosophy from theology, arguing that the philosopher must accept the eternity of the world as dictated by reason. St. Thomas Aquinas countered this view, defending the interdependence of faith and reason and asserting the creation of the world by God as an article of faith.

Étienne Tempier, Bishop of Paris, issued a set of condemnations in 1277 that explicitly targeted Aristotelian propositions incompatible with Christian dogma. These condemnations, while not binding on Catholics, served as guidelines for scholars at the University of Paris and shaped the intellectual climate that fostered the birth of modern science.

Finally, Jaki highlights the work of Jean Buridan, a French priest who developed the concept of impetus, a crucial precursor to Newton’s first law of motion. Buridan’s theory, rooted in a rejection of Aristotelian eternal cycles and guided by his faith in a Creator who set the universe in motion, represents a pivotal breakthrough in the history of science.

Chapter 3: “Of Christianity”

This chapter explores the theological underpinnings of Jaki’s thesis, arguing that the “birth” of modern science was intimately tied to the unique monotheism of Christianity. He emphasizes the distinction between a Creator and creation, a concept clarified by Aquinas and deeply rooted in the biblical tradition, which provided a framework for understanding a universe with an absolute beginning in time.

Jaki contrasts the Christian concept of creation “ex nihilo” with the Greek notion of an eternal universe emanating from a First Cause. He argues that the Greek view, despite its belief in a beginning, envisioned an eternally recurring cycle of emanation, exemplified by the doctrine of the Great Year. This cyclic worldview, prevalent in other ancient cultures as well, presented a fundamental obstacle to the development of a science based on a universe with a defined beginning and end.

The Uniqueness of Christian Monotheism:

The author highlights the key difference between Christian monotheism and the monotheistic faiths of Judaism and Islam. He argues that the Incarnation and the doctrine of the Holy Trinity provided a crucial counterpoint to the cyclical worldview that hampered scientific development in other cultures.

The Incarnation, the belief that God became man in the person of Jesus Christ, firmly establishes the distinction between Creator and creation. This separation prevents the blurring of lines between the divine and the material world that characterized pantheistic and emanationist cosmologies.

The doctrine of the Holy Trinity, the belief in one God in three Persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), further strengthens this distinction. By revealing the internal relations within the Godhead, Christianity emphasizes the transcendence of God over creation, further solidifying the separation between the Creator and the created world.

Jaki notes that the Gospel of John, by referring to Christ as the “Word” (Logos) made flesh, redefines the Greek concept of “monogenes.” This term, which in Greek philosophy referred to the eternally emanating cosmos, now designates the Incarnate Son of God, signifying a radical departure from the cyclical worldview.

The Importance of Revelation:

Jaki argues that the “breakthrough” that led to the birth of modern science was not based on observation, experimentation, or human reasoning alone, but on faith in divine revelation. The Christian Creed, which articulated the doctrines of creation “ex nihilo,” the Incarnation, and the Holy Trinity, provided the crucial intellectual framework that allowed scholars like Buridan to break free from the constraints of Aristotelian cosmology.

By rejecting the eternity of the world and embracing a universe created by a rational and personal God, medieval Christian scholars opened the door for a scientific enterprise that sought to understand the order and lawfulness of a universe with an absolute beginning and end in time. Jaki concludes that this theological shift, rooted in divine revelation, was essential for the birth of modern science.

Chapter 4: Critics

This chapter addresses the criticisms and misunderstandings surrounding Jaki’s thesis. He acknowledges the ongoing debate surrounding the definition of “science” and emphasizes the importance of clarifying the scope and limits of scientific inquiry.

Jaki points out that his definition of “exact science” often elicits accusations of naiveté, but he argues that longer and seemingly more sophisticated definitions ultimately say the same thing. He asserts that the quantifiable and measurable nature of science necessitates a focus on “objects in motion,” distinguishing it from other forms of knowledge that address non-quantifiable aspects of reality.

The Importance of Interdisciplinary Understanding:

Jaki responds to critics who question the necessity of being both a scientist and a theologian to understand the history of science. He explains that his own interdisciplinary background provided him with the necessary tools to explore the theological underpinnings of scientific thought. He quotes Pierre Duhem, who argued that a deep understanding of both science and theology is crucial for appreciating the points of contact between the two fields.

Jaki acknowledges the valuable contributions of historians who have explored the role of the Church in the development of science, but he laments their tendency to downplay or ignore the theological dimension. He notes that Protestant scholars, in particular, often overlook the work of Duhem and himself, focusing on Protestant contributions to the rise of science while neglecting the influence of Catholic theology.

Addressing the “Myth” of Christian Contribution:

Jaki confronts the claim, put forth by some historians and even some Catholic scholars, that the notion of a Christian contribution to science is a “myth.” He argues that this dismissal stems from a misunderstanding of his thesis and a failure to engage with the historical and theological evidence he presents.

He critiques historians who focus solely on institutional factors, like the rise of universities, while neglecting the impact of Catholic dogma on the intellectual climate that fostered scientific inquiry. He also challenges the view that the Church merely “tolerated” pagan scientific thought, arguing that Christian scholars actively engaged with Greek and Arabic texts, synthesizing them with their own theological framework and purifying them from incompatible elements.

Jaki refutes the charge that his thesis promotes a “condescending” and “self-congratulatory” view of Christianity. He emphasizes that he never claimed that Christianity “created” science, but rather that the Christian worldview provided the necessary intellectual and spiritual soil for modern science to take root and flourish. He acknowledges the contributions of other cultures to scientific knowledge while arguing that the unique worldview of Christianity played a crucial role in the birth of modern science.

Chapter 5: “What Now?”

This final chapter reflects on the implications of Jaki’s work and proposes a path forward for communicating his thesis in a more ecumenical and inclusive manner. He emphasizes the need for careful and nuanced language that avoids offense to adherents of other religions while upholding the truth of his historical and theological argument.

The Need for Better Communication:

Jaki acknowledges the challenges of communicating a thesis that might seem exclusionary to those outside the Christian faith. He encourages a more sensitive approach that recognizes the deeply held beliefs and traditions of others, emphasizing the importance of dialogue and mutual respect.

He draws a parallel with Aquinas, who tailored his arguments to the specific audience he addressed, using the Old Testament for Jewish readers, the New Testament for Christians, and universal reason for Muslims. Jaki suggests that modern proponents of his thesis should adopt a similar approach, communicating the truth in a way that resonates with the listener’s worldview and avoids unnecessary offense.

The Role of the Church in Guiding Science:

Jaki proposes a Marian character for the future relationship between science and the Church, building on the “birth” and “stillbirth” analogy he uses throughout the book. He emphasizes the nurturing and guiding role of the Church as a Mother, offering support and correction to the human family in its pursuit of knowledge.

He suggests that science, despite its apparent maturity and independence, still needs the guidance of the Church to navigate the ethical and philosophical challenges posed by its discoveries. By providing a moral and spiritual compass, the Church can help ensure that scientific progress benefits humanity and avoids harmful consequences.

The Importance of Education:

Jaki highlights the crucial role of education in fostering a healthy relationship between science and religion. He argues that teaching the hard sciences in a rigorous and objective manner, free from ideological biases, can allow both believers and non-believers to appreciate the order and beauty of the natural world.

He suggests that believers, by recognizing the hand of God in the laws of nature, can find their faith strengthened by scientific discovery. Non-believers, even if they do not embrace religious faith, can be awed by the intricate design and order of the universe, potentially leading them to a greater appreciation for the possibility of a Creator.

Jaki concludes by encouraging Catholics to embrace their rightful place in the history and future of science. He argues that knowledge of Catholic dogma, far from hindering scientific inquiry, can provide valuable guidance and clarity, helping scientists to avoid pitfalls and to pursue research that benefits humanity.

This book provides a compelling and thought-provoking exploration of the relationship between Christianity and science. Jaki’s rigorous scholarship and nuanced theological insights offer a valuable counterpoint to the prevalent narrative of conflict between faith and reason, revealing the profound influence of Christian thought on the birth and development of modern science.