Title: A Biblical Defense of Catholicism
Author: Dave Armstrong
TLDR: This book dives deep into the Bible to show how seemingly “unbiblical” Catholic doctrines like purgatory, the Eucharist, Mary’s role, and even the papacy are actually rooted in Scripture. Armstrong challenges Protestant interpretations, highlighting early Church history and a “both/and” Catholic view of faith, grace, and works.
Chapter 1: Bible and Tradition: “Maintain the Traditions…”
This chapter dives into the fundamental difference between Catholicism and Protestantism regarding the relationship between Sacred Scripture (the Bible) and Sacred Tradition (historical doctrines and dogmas of the Church). While Protestantism champions sola Scriptura – Scripture alone as the sole source and judge of Christian faith – Catholicism emphasizes a harmonious blend of both Scripture and Tradition as equal and inseparable sources of revelation.
Armstrong meticulously analyzes numerous New Testament passages to demonstrate the biblical basis for Tradition. He argues that the Bible itself acknowledges its own limitations, highlighting passages like Mark 4:33, Mark 6:34, John 16:12, John 20:30, John 21:25, and Acts 1:2-3, all implying the existence of unrecorded teachings of Christ.
Furthermore, Armstrong delves into the Greek word paradosis (“tradition”), which appears in both positive and negative contexts in the New Testament. He argues that its positive usage by St. Paul in passages like 1 Corinthians 11:2 and 2 Thessalonians 2:15 clearly refers to apostolic tradition, handed down from Christ through the Apostles, and not to corrupt human traditions, which Jesus condemns.
Armstrong also scrutinizes the frequent use of phrases like “word of God” and “word of the Lord” in Acts and the Epistles, revealing that they predominantly refer to oral preaching, not Scripture. This underscores the inherent importance of oral transmission in early Christianity, further challenging the Protestant notion of sola Scriptura.
The chapter also deconstructs two commonly cited “proof texts” for sola Scriptura: 2 Timothy 3:16-17 and 1 Corinthians 4:6. Armstrong, drawing upon Cardinal Newman’s critique, argues that 2 Timothy 3:16-17 doesn’t claim the sufficiency of Scripture, while 1 Corinthians 4:6, when understood in its ethical context, refers to the Old Testament, and not the New Testament canon.
Finally, Armstrong delves into the historical development of the New Testament canon, illustrating how the selection of books was a lengthy process, ultimately settled by the authority of the Catholic Church in 397 A.D. This, he argues, further undermines the Protestant claim of sola Scriptura, as the very definition of Scripture relies on an extra-biblical authority – the Catholic Church.
Chapter 2: Justification: “Faith Apart From Works is Barren”
This chapter tackles the complex issue of justification, the process of being declared righteous in the eyes of God. Armstrong highlights the fundamental difference between the Catholic and Protestant understanding of this doctrine. While Catholicism emphasizes an “infused” justification – a true eradication of sin and inner transformation through grace – Protestantism leans towards a “forensic” justification – a legal declaration of righteousness imputed by God, leaving the sinner initially unchanged.
Armstrong analyzes numerous biblical passages to demonstrate the Catholic view of justification. He starts with Matthew 5:20 and Matthew 7:16-27, where Jesus emphasizes the necessity of good works for salvation, stating that true faith must bear fruit. Further reinforcing this view, he cites passages like John 3:36 and Acts 10:35, where “belief” and “obedience” are equated, signifying that true faith manifests in righteous actions.
The chapter delves into the infamous Romans 3:28 – “a man is justified by faith apart from works of law.” Armstrong argues, drawing on historical and linguistic evidence, that this verse refers to works done without faith, not good works done in response to faith. He points out Luther’s arbitrary insertion of the word “alone” after “faith” in his German translation, a manipulation that fueled the Protestant doctrine of sola fide (faith alone).
Armstrong meticulously examines passages like Acts 22:16 and 1 Corinthians 6:11, where St. Paul connects baptism with washing away sins and being justified, suggesting a sacramental understanding of justification, where grace is conveyed through physical means. He also analyzes Romans 5:17-19, arguing that its parallelism between “made sinners” and “made righteous” indicates an actual transformation, not merely a legal declaration.
The chapter also explores the crucial role of good works in salvation, citing passages like 1 Corinthians 3:8, 15:10, 2 Corinthians 5:17, Ephesians 2:8-10, and Philippians 2:12-13, where St. Paul connects them with rewards, maturity, and the “working out” of one’s salvation.
Finally, Armstrong analyzes the Epistle of James, highlighting James 2:14-26, which explicitly refutes the Protestant doctrine of sola fide. He clarifies that while both St. Paul and St. James affirm the necessity of faith, they understand it differently. For St. Paul, faith encompasses a complete, active allegiance to God, including good works, whereas St. James condemns a passive, intellectual faith devoid of action.
The chapter concludes by summarizing the decrees of the Second Council of Orange (529) and the Council of Trent (1545-1563) on justification, emphasizing their harmony with the biblical view of infused justification and the necessity of good works.
Chapter 3: Development of Doctrine: “He Will Teach You”
This chapter addresses the concept of development of doctrine, a cornerstone of Catholic theology. Armstrong argues that Catholic doctrines, while rooted in the Bible and early Church, have undergone an organic development through history, not a corruption as some Protestant critics claim. He clarifies that this development signifies an increasing understanding of existing truths, not the creation of new doctrines.
Armstrong begins by acknowledging the apparent difference between the Catholic Church today and its early form, arguing that development of doctrine provides the key to understanding this evolution. He cites examples of doctrines accepted by all Christians that have developed over time: the Divinity of Christ, the Trinity, the two natures of Christ, Original Sin, and even the New Testament canon.
He further defends the concept of development by drawing upon the writings of prominent figures like St. Augustine, who saw doctrinal growth as a natural response to challenges and controversies, and St. Vincent of Lerins, who provided the classic patristic exposition of development, emphasizing the unchanging essence of doctrine despite its increasing clarity.
Armstrong also highlights Cardinal Newman’s seminal work, An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine. He summarizes Newman’s “seven notes” – characteristics of true development – and argues that while Catholicism fulfills these criteria, Protestantism, particularly in its unique doctrines, fails to do so. He contends that Protestantism introduced new doctrines not found in Scripture or the early Church, thereby constituting a departure from the apostolic tradition.
Finally, Armstrong analyzes several biblical passages that support the notion of doctrinal development. He cites the parable of the mustard seed (Matthew 13:31-32), which symbolizes the organic growth of the Church, and Jesus’ promise of the Holy Spirit as a guide to all truth (John 14:26, 16:13).
The chapter concludes by emphasizing the ongoing work of the Holy Spirit in illuminating and deepening our understanding of Christian truth within the living community of the Church.
Chapter 4: The Eucharist: “This is My Body”
This chapter defends the Catholic doctrine of the Eucharist – the Real Presence of Christ in the bread and wine consecrated at Mass. Armstrong starts by outlining the key tenets of this doctrine, as defined by the Council of Trent: the substantial presence of Christ under the species of bread and wine, transubstantiation (the change of substance while accidents remain), and the reception of Christ’s whole Body and Blood under either species.
Armstrong tackles common misconceptions about transubstantiation, arguing that it’s not a dependence on Aristotelian philosophy, nor a denial of other forms of spiritual presence. He emphasizes its foundation in the biblical revelation of the Real Presence, clarified and defined over time. He further differentiates between accidental and substantial change, explaining how transubstantiation involves a miraculous supernatural change of substance, leaving the outward appearances of bread and wine unchanged.
He directly addresses the “difficulty” of believing in transubstantiation, drawing upon Cardinal Newman’s argument that the doctrine, while difficult to imagine, isn’t difficult to believe, particularly when compared to other Christian miracles and mysteries like the Incarnation and Resurrection. He stresses the omnipotence of God and his ability to work beyond the limitations of natural laws.
Armstrong then analyzes the biblical basis for the Real Presence, focusing on John 6:47-63, where Jesus repeatedly insists on the necessity of eating his flesh and drinking his blood for eternal life. He rebuts the Protestant interpretation of this passage as metaphorical, highlighting the literal language used by Jesus (especially the Greek word trogo, meaning “gnaws” or “chews”), his lack of correction of literal interpretations by his listeners, and the historical context of Jewish Passover, which involved a literal sacrificial lamb.
He further scrutinizes the Last Supper accounts (Luke 22:19-20, Matthew 26:26-28, Mark 14:22-24), emphasizing the literal phrasing “This is my body,” and the absence of any indication of symbolic language. He also analyzes 1 Corinthians 10:16 and 1 Corinthians 11:27-30, highlighting St. Paul’s warnings against profaning the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist.
The chapter concludes by reiterating the inseparable link between the Real Presence and the Incarnation, calling for an open-minded acceptance of the miraculous nature of the Eucharist as an extension of God’s presence in the world.
Chapter 5: The Sacrifice of the Mass: “A Lamb… Slain”
This chapter explores the Catholic doctrine of the Sacrifice of the Mass, emphasizing its connection to the Eucharist and the one sacrifice of Christ on the Cross. Armstrong begins by outlining the key pronouncements of the Council of Trent on the Mass: its institution by Christ at the Last Supper, its representation of the bloody sacrifice on the Cross, its application of Christ’s sacrifice for the remission of sins, and its prefiguration by various Old Testament sacrifices.
Armstrong clarifies that the Mass is not a “re-sacrifice” of Christ, but a sacramental, unbloody re-presentation of Calvary, lifting the faithful into the timeless, heavenly realm where the sacrifice is eternally present. He emphasizes that Christ is the ultimate offerer in the Mass, with the priest acting as a secondary instrumental agent.
Armstrong then delves into the biblical basis for the Sacrifice of the Mass, starting with the Old Testament typology of Melchizedek, the priest-king who offered bread and wine to God (Genesis 14:18). He connects this figure to Psalm 110:4 and Hebrews 5-7, where Christ is identified as a priest forever in the order of Melchizedek, suggesting a perpetual offering of bread and wine beyond the sacrifice on the Cross.
He also analyzes Malachi 1:11, where God foretells a universally-offered pure offering, arguing that the Mass fulfills this prophecy. He further explores the Book of Hebrews, highlighting its theme of Christ as the eternal High Priest, continually interceding for humanity (Hebrews 7:24-25). This, he argues, provides a biblical context for the Mass as an ongoing presentation of Christ’s sacrifice to the Father.
Finally, Armstrong analyzes the Book of Revelation, focusing on its depiction of an altar in heaven (Revelation 6:9, 8:3, 9:13, 11:1, 14:18, 16:7), where the prayers of the saints are offered as incense (Revelation 8:3-4). He connects this to Revelation 5:6, where the Lamb (Jesus) is described as “standing as though it had been slain,” suggesting an ongoing presentation of Christ’s sacrifice in heaven. This, he concludes, provides a powerful biblical parallel to the Catholic understanding of the Mass.
Chapter 6: The Communion of Saints: “All Who Are In Christ”
This chapter examines the Catholic doctrine of the Communion of Saints, which affirms the spiritual connection between all members of the Church: the Church Militant on earth, the Church Suffering in purgatory, and the Church Triumphant in heaven. Armstrong begins by outlining the key tenets of this doctrine, as defined by the Council of Trent: the intercession of saints for humanity, the veneration of their relics, and the honor due to their images.
He clarifies that the veneration of saints is not idolatry, but an act of honoring those who have achieved a greater likeness to God through his grace. He emphasizes that all honor ultimately belongs to God, with the saints serving as reflections of his glory.
Armstrong then dives into the biblical basis for the Communion of Saints, starting with passages like 1 Samuel 28:12-15, which depicts Samuel appearing to Saul after death, and Tobit 12:12-15, where the angel Raphael presents the prayers of the saints to God. He also analyzes 2 Maccabees 15:13-14, where the deceased prophet Jeremiah is depicted praying for the Jews, and Revelation 5:8 and 8:3-4, which portrays creatures – likely angels or saints – presenting the prayers of the saints to God.
Armstrong further explores the biblical evidence for guardian angels (Matthew 18:10), their awareness of earthly affairs (Luke 15:10), and their intercession for humanity (Tobit 12:12-15, Revelation 8:3-4). He rebuts the Protestant objection to invoking angels, arguing that it rests on an unfounded fear of idolatry and fails to acknowledge the biblical reality of angelic intercession.
The chapter also examines the veneration of relics, citing examples like the bones of Elisha raising a dead man (2 Kings 13:20-21) and the healing power of objects touched by Jesus and the Apostles (Matthew 9:20-22, Acts 5:15-16, 19:11-12).
Armstrong concludes by highlighting the strong biblical foundation for the Communion of Saints, arguing that it rests on the reality of life after death, the ongoing concern of the departed for earthly affairs, and the powerful intercession of saints and angels, all working together within the mystical Body of Christ.
Chapter 7: Purgatory: “…Saved, But Only As Through Fire”
This chapter delves into the Catholic doctrine of Purgatory – a temporary state of purification after death for those who die in God’s grace but are not yet fully cleansed of sin. Armstrong begins by outlining the key pronouncements of the Second Council of Lyons (1274) on purgatory: its role in cleansing souls after death, the efficacy of prayers and sacrifices for alleviating its penalties, and the immediate reception into heaven for those free of sin.
Armstrong clarifies that while the Church hasn’t defined the nature of purgatory as a place or a process, its purpose is the purification of souls through suffering commensurate with the degree of sin. He emphasizes that while purgatory involves pain, it doesn’t exclude joy and hope, as these souls are assured of eventual entrance into heaven.
Armstrong then explores the biblical basis for purgatory, starting with Old Testament passages like Psalm 66:12, Isaiah 4:4, and Micah 7:8-9, which depict purification through fire and God’s judgment. He further analyzes 2 Maccabees 12:39-45, where the Jews offer prayers and sacrifices for their deceased brethren who had sinned, demonstrating a belief in a state of purification after death.
He meticulously examines Jesus’ teachings on the afterlife, particularly Matthew 5:22, 5:25-26, 12:32, and Luke 16:9, 16:19-31, arguing that they point towards the existence of a third state beyond heaven and hell. He also analyzes passages like Ephesians 4:8-10 and 1 Peter 3:19-20, which describe Christ’s descent into the “lower parts of the earth” and his preaching to the “spirits in prison,” suggesting a realm of purification for the righteous dead.
Armstrong then focuses on 1 Corinthians 3:11-15, where St. Paul speaks of believers being “saved, but only as through fire,” a passage widely interpreted by Church Fathers as referring to purgatory. He further examines 1 Corinthians 15:29 – “baptized on behalf of the dead” – connecting it to 2 Maccabees 12:44 and the practice of prayers for the dead, which presupposes a state of purification after death.
Finally, Armstrong analyzes passages that emphasize the necessity of holiness for entering heaven (Hebrews 12:14, Revelation 21:27) and God’s nature as a “consuming fire” (Hebrews 12:29), drawing a parallel to the purifying fire of purgatory. He concludes by arguing that the biblical evidence, combined with the longstanding tradition of the Church, provides a strong case for the existence of purgatory as a necessary process of sanctification for those destined for heaven.
Chapter 8: Penance: “…Share Christ’s Sufferings”
This chapter explores the Catholic doctrine of Penance, a sacrament involving contrition, confession to a priest, absolution, and the performance of penitential works to atone for sin. Armstrong begins by outlining the key pronouncements of the Council of Trent on Penance: the rejection of the notion that forgiveness automatically erases all punishment, the importance of satisfaction for recalling sinners from sin and checking future transgressions, and the conformity to Christ’s own satisfaction through penitential acts.
Armstrong clarifies that penance is not a “tribunal of wrath,” but a means of grace and spiritual healing. He emphasizes that while Christ’s sacrifice is the source of forgiveness, we still experience the temporal consequences of sin, which can be mitigated through acts of penance. He further connects penance to infused justification, arguing that if God’s goal is to truly free us from sin, its expiation and elimination through penance become essential.
Armstrong then delves into the biblical basis for penance, starting with Old Testament passages that depict vicarious atonement, where one person makes amends for another’s sins. He cites examples like Moses offering himself as a sacrifice for the Israelites (Exodus 32:30-32) and Phinehas’ act of zeal atoning for Israel’s sin (Numbers 25:11-13). He also analyzes instances where God forgives sin but still imposes punishment, like the Israelites’ pardon coupled with their exclusion from the Promised Land (Numbers 14:19-23) and David’s forgiveness accompanied by the death of his child (2 Samuel 12:13-14).
Armstrong then examines St. Paul’s teaching on suffering, particularly Romans 8:17, 1 Corinthians 11:30, 2 Corinthians 4:10, Philippians 2:17, 3:10, and 2 Timothy 4:6, arguing that these passages reveal a profound identification with Christ’s sufferings and the redemptive power of suffering for oneself and others. He culminates his analysis with the remarkable Colossians 1:24, where St. Paul claims to “complete what is lacking in Christ’s afflictions” through his own sufferings for the Church.
He further connects penance to indulgences – the remission of temporal punishment due to sin – exploring the biblical basis for the Church’s power to bind and loose (Matthew 16:19, 18:18, John 20:23) and citing St. Paul’s disciplinary actions towards the Corinthians (1 Corinthians 5:3-5, 2 Corinthians 2:6-11) as an example of indulgences in practice.
Chapter 9: The Blessed Virgin Mary: “Hail, Full of Grace”
This chapter defends the Catholic veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary, starting with a clarification of its foundation in the doctrines of the Incarnation and the unique role of Mary as the Mother of God. Armstrong begins by addressing common Protestant concerns about Marian devotion, acknowledging the occasional excesses and misinterpretations while emphasizing the Church’s efforts to correct them. He stresses that Mary’s role is always subordinate to Christ, reflecting his glory and grace.
Armstrong then outlines the four key Marian dogmas: Mary as “Mother of God” (Theotokos), the Immaculate Conception, the Assumption, and the perpetual virginity. He explains the biblical and historical basis for each dogma, emphasizing their Christocentric focus and their consistency with Scripture.
He begins with the title Theotokos, affirmed at the Council of Ephesus in 431, analyzing passages like Isaiah 7:14 (the prophecy of the virgin birth), Luke 1:43 (“Mother of the Lord”), and John 2:1 (“Mother of Jesus”), which point towards Mary’s unique role as the mother of God incarnate.
He then explores the Immaculate Conception, defined in 1854, examining Genesis 3:15 (the “Protoevangelion,” where enmity is established between the woman and the serpent), Luke 1:28 (the angel Gabriel’s salutation “Hail, full of grace”), and Luke 1:35 (the overshadowing of the Holy Spirit), arguing that these passages, when understood in the context of Old Testament typology and the Jewish understanding of holiness, support the doctrine. He further connects the Immaculate Conception to the ark of the covenant, highlighting biblical parallels between Mary and the ark as bearers of God’s presence.
Armstrong analyzes the Assumption, proclaimed in 1950, citing Matthew 27:52-53 (the resurrection of many saints after Christ’s resurrection) and Genesis 3:15 (Mary’s participation in Christ’s victory over sin and death), arguing that these passages, combined with the theological implications of the Immaculate Conception, provide a strong case for the Assumption.
He examines the perpetual virginity of Mary, citing linguistic evidence for the diverse meanings of the Greek word adelphos (“brother”), exploring passages like Luke 2:41-51 (the absence of Jesus’ “brothers” during the Temple visit), Matthew 23:8 and 12:49-50 (Jesus’ use of “brethren” in a broader sense), and John 19:26-27 (Jesus entrusting Mary to John), arguing that they collectively challenge the literal interpretation of Jesus’ “brothers” as siblings.
Finally, Armstrong explores the biblical basis for Mary’s roles as intercessor, mediatrix, and spiritual mother, analyzing passages like John 19:26-27, Revelation 12:1-17, and Genesis 3:15, highlighting the “New Eve” typology and Mary’s connection to the Church. He concludes by summarizing the Marian beliefs of the Protestant Reformers – Luther, Calvin, and Bullinger – revealing their surprising acceptance of many Catholic Marian dogmas.
Chapter 10: The Papacy and Infallibility: “Keys of the Kingdom”
This chapter defends the Catholic doctrine of the Papacy, focusing on the Petrine texts of the New Testament and the historical development of the papacy as an extension of St. Peter’s divinely-appointed primacy among the Apostles. Armstrong starts by outlining the dogma of papal infallibility, as defined by the First Vatican Council in 1870, clarifying that it applies to the pope’s official pronouncements on faith and morals when speaking “ex cathedra” (from the chair of Peter).
He then addresses the misconception that papal infallibility is a recent invention, drawing upon historical examples like St. Francis de Sales’ writings from the 16th century to demonstrate the longstanding tradition of belief in papal primacy and infallibility. He further cites Cardinal Newman’s Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, emphasizing that doctrine unfolds over time in response to challenges and controversies, with the later Church providing a clearer understanding of the implicit truths of the early Church.
Armstrong then delves into the biblical basis for the papacy, starting with Matthew 16:18-19, where Jesus calls Peter the “rock” upon which he will build his Church and gives him the “keys of the kingdom of heaven.” He meticulously analyzes this passage, rebutting the Protestant interpretations of the “rock” as Peter’s faith or Jesus himself. He highlights the Aramaic word kepha, which means both “rock” and “Peter,” suggesting a deliberate wordplay by Jesus, and draws upon the unanimous agreement of numerous Protestant commentaries in support of the traditional Catholic interpretation.
He further explores the significance of the “keys of the kingdom,” connecting them to Isaiah 22:20-22, where the “key of the house of David” is given to the steward (prime minister) as a symbol of supreme administrative authority. He also analyzes the power to bind and loose, mentioned in Matthew 16:19, drawing upon its usage in Jewish tradition as referring to the authority to interpret and apply the Law, and connecting it to the Catholic understanding of priestly absolution and the Church’s authority to define doctrine.
Armstrong then examines the scene in John 21:15-17, where Jesus commands Peter to “feed my sheep,” arguing that this charge, given three times, signifies Peter’s unique role as the supreme shepherd of the Church, even though others share in this pastoral responsibility. He further analyzes Luke 22:31-32, where Jesus prays for Peter that his faith may not fail and commands him to “strengthen your brethren,” arguing that this passage supports the Catholic understanding of papal infallibility and the pope’s role in safeguarding the faith of the Church.
He also addresses St. Paul’s rebuke of St. Peter in Galatians 2:11-14, clarifying that this incident concerned a matter of conduct, not doctrine, and did not challenge Peter’s primacy. He further analyzes the Council of Jerusalem in Acts 15, highlighting Peter’s leading role in deciding the issue of Gentile circumcision and the implicit recognition of his authority by the other Apostles.
Finally, Armstrong presents a comprehensive list of 50 New Testament passages that highlight the preeminence of St. Peter among the Apostles, demonstrating the sheer weight of the biblical evidence for Petrine primacy. He concludes by arguing that the papacy, while undergoing development throughout history, is firmly rooted in Scripture and the early Church, serving as a visible sign of unity and a guarantee of doctrinal continuity.
This detailed summary provides a comprehensive overview of the core arguments presented in A Biblical Defense of Catholicism. It showcases Armstrong’s meticulous analysis of Scripture and historical evidence, revealing how Catholic doctrines, often dismissed as unbiblical, are deeply rooted in the biblical tradition and the continuous teaching of the Church.